Urban Scape
hajar Asadpour; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee; Armin Bahramian
Abstract
The visual aspects of historical urban landscapes are often overlooked, which leads to distorted and unclear images of landscapes that are recorded in the minds of citizens. To optimally manage the visual aspects of historical urban landscapes, it is necessary to take into consideration the affordances ...
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The visual aspects of historical urban landscapes are often overlooked, which leads to distorted and unclear images of landscapes that are recorded in the minds of citizens. To optimally manage the visual aspects of historical urban landscapes, it is necessary to take into consideration the affordances of the urban landscapes. A recent research study was conducted to explain the process of visual management of historical urban landscapes based on environmental affordances in the studied sample. The Zandiyeh area of Shiraz was chosen for the study due to the changes it has undergone in recent development and organization processes. The research aimed to answer two questions: what are the steps of the visual management process, and what is their status? What is the level of environmental affordances in the area? After conducting library studies and identifying the affordances of the environment, the studied area was networked using the "Photo Grid" technique. Experts were then asked to rate each affordance in this area based on images and their previous knowledge, using an image-based questionnaire. Additionally, various steps of the visual management process in Shiraz were evaluated. The results showed that the current situation of the historical urban fabric of Shiraz is plagued with three categories of problems: "Design and Planning Challenges," "Management Challenges," and "Challenges related to Understanding the Context." In the visual management process, the steps of "Developing Visual Protection Goals" and "Landscape Organization" are the least prioritized for action.
The research determined the visual management process in historical urban landscapes, which can be used in the Shiraz historical tissue. By emphasizing the step of framing and environmental affordances, it was determined that Zone No. 5 of the Zandiyeh area (the area adjacent to Vakil mosque and bathhouse) has all the affordances at the optimal level, while Zone No. 2 (Divankhaneh area) received a lower score than other parts, which requires more attention.
Urban Sociology
Mohammad Reza Zamiri; mahin nastaran; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee
Abstract
Highlights:
- Socio-spatial segregation at the urban neighborhood level is a significant manifestation of spatial inequality and injustice, affecting the overall quality of urban life and access to resources.
- The main objective of this research is to assess and quantify the social and spatial segregation ...
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Highlights:
- Socio-spatial segregation at the urban neighborhood level is a significant manifestation of spatial inequality and injustice, affecting the overall quality of urban life and access to resources.
- The main objective of this research is to assess and quantify the social and spatial segregation of ethnic groups within the neighborhoods of Bojnord, with a specific focus on understanding how these patterns have evolved over time.
- The research findings indicate that the clustering of the Turkmen population within Bojnord's neighborhoods has notably intensified between the years 1385 and 1395, signaling a growing trend of ethnic concentration.
- This study further explores the broader implications of residential segregation, particularly how it influences the quality of life, access to services, and social cohesion in urban neighborhoods.
Introduction:
In recent years, the study of socio-spatial segregation has gained increasing importance within the fields of urban and social sciences, especially with the advent of advanced computational tools that facilitate more precise measurements and analyses. Socio-spatial segregation at the neighborhood level represents one of the most visible and impactful forms of spatial inequality and social injustice within urban settings. By providing tools for effective measurement, researchers and policymakers can better evaluate and analyze the extent and severity of these inequalities, gaining insights into the distribution of resources and opportunities across different social groups.
Moreover, tracking the evolution of segregation over time within a specific geographical area allows for a deeper understanding of how urban development, migration patterns, and policy interventions influence the spatial organization of populations. This, in turn, sheds light on the degree to which citizens have equitable access to essential services, such as education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, as well as the overall quality of life in different urban neighborhoods.
Theoretical Framework:
The primary goal of this research is to measure the social and spatial segregation of ethnic groups within the neighborhoods of Bojnord and to analyze how these patterns have evolved over time. The central research question that guides this study is: What are the socio-spatial dimensions of residential segregation among ethnic groups in Bojnord, and how are these dimensions changing in response to broader social, economic, and political factors?
Since Bojnord's designation as the capital of North Khorasan province in 2003, the city has undergone rapid growth and transformation. Its population has nearly doubled, and its physical area has tripled by 2021, largely due to significant waves of migration from nearby villages, other cities, and even regions beyond the provincial borders. These demographic changes have inevitably led to shifts in the social and spatial organization of the city, raising important questions about the nature and consequences of residential segregation in this context.
Methodology:
The research employs a descriptive and analytical approach, utilizing the latest population statistics, along with data on the ethnic and religious composition of Bojnord's neighborhoods. This data was collected and analyzed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the current state of residential segregation in the city. In addition, the study draws on population statistics and compositions from previous census periods, particularly those following Bojnord's designation as the provincial capital, to track changes in segregation patterns over time.
To measure the socio-spatial dimensions of residential segregation, the study utilizes the Geo-Segregation Analyzer software, which generates detailed maps to visualize the distribution and concentration of different ethnic and religious groups within the city. These maps provide a clear representation of how various social groups are spatially organized within Bojnord, highlighting areas of significant ethnic clustering and isolation.
Results and Discussion:
The analysis reveals that the distribution of populations, particularly those who have migrated to Bojnord in recent years, is heavily influenced by the city's ethnic and cultural diversity. Among the 26 districts of Bojnord, the highest dissimilarity index was observed between the Turkmen and Tat ethnicities, indicating a pronounced level of segregation between these two groups.
Despite the high concentration of Turkmen and Tat populations in certain neighborhoods, the Tat group does not exhibit significant spatial isolation compared to other ethnic groups. However, the clustering of the Turkmen population within Bojnord's neighborhoods increased markedly between 1385 and 1395, coinciding with a substantial influx of Turkmen immigrants during this period. This trend has continued in subsequent years, although at a slower pace, as immigration rates have declined recently.
The results of this study offer valuable insights into the extent and intensity of segregation among different social groups, both ethnic and religious, within Bojnord's neighborhoods. Various indicators were employed to measure the dimensions of residential segregation, revealing that much of the population growth in Bojnord over the past two decades has been driven by immigration rather than natural population growth. Immigrant groups, particularly those belonging to specific ethnic and religious communities, have tended to settle in neighborhoods where others of similar backgrounds are already concentrated, further reinforcing the spatial concentration of these groups in specific areas of the city.
Conclusion:
The findings of this research indicate that since Bojnord's designation as the capital of North Khorasan province, residential segregation among ethnic groups has intensified, with the Turkmen ethnic group showing the most significant growth in segregation indices. If this trend continues, it may lead to heightened social tensions and conflicts, as the spatial separation of ethnic groups can exacerbate existing inequalities and contribute to social fragmentation.
Given Bojnord's status as a provincial capital and its diverse ethnic composition, the social and spatial segregation of ethnic groups within urban neighborhoods poses significant challenges for urban planners and policymakers. Addressing these issues is crucial for improving the quality of life for all residents, ensuring equitable access to housing, support services, and opportunities in key areas such as employment, education, and healthcare. Policymakers must consider strategies to promote greater social integration and cohesion within the city, fostering a more inclusive and just urban environment for all its inhabitants.
Urban Scape
Hajar Assadpour; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee; Armin Bahramian
Abstract
Highlights- The six layers of the research onion include research philosophy, approach to theory development, methodological choice, strategy, time horizons, and techniques and procedures including data collection and analysis.- The researchers developed the research onion for the concept of urban landscape, ...
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Highlights- The six layers of the research onion include research philosophy, approach to theory development, methodological choice, strategy, time horizons, and techniques and procedures including data collection and analysis.- The researchers developed the research onion for the concept of urban landscape, visual evaluation of landscape, and visual management of landscape through a systematic review. - The urban landscape research onion model was presented in seven layers along with researcher guidelines using the idea of word clouds.- The researcher must choose among the three categories of objectivist, structuralist, and subjectivist, as mentioned in the philosophy layer.- Techniques and procedures were proposed in the central core of the urban landscape research onion and divided into the direct (by asking people) and indirect (through specialist analysis) categories. IntroductionThe urban landscape is part of the understandable objectivity of the reality of the existing space around people in the city. As a phenomenon, urban landscape cannot be assumed to have only subjective or objective dimensions. The connection between different methodological components in different fields of landscape research is always necessary. The research aims to strengthen the necessary foundations of research in urban landscape with a holistic, comprehensive viewpoint by examining the components and layers that the onion model of urban landscape research includes. Therefore, a systematic review was applied of the articles conducted in the field of urban landscape. The identification and analysis of the cases used in the majority of the research onions presented by Saunders et al. led to the urban landscape research onion through changes applied to this model. Researchers can choose their lines of research more accurately and faster using the research onion.Theoretical FrameworkSpecifically in the field of research methodology, a book entitled Research in Landscape Architecture: Methods and Methodology was published in 2017 by Routledge Publications. This book deals with the conflict between objectivists and subjectivists. It states that pragmatism is the only solution to this duality (Hashemizadegan, 2019: 55). In addition, many studies have been conducted with an emphasis on urban landscape and its relationship with other urban concepts. However, there has not been a comprehensive viewpoint on their methods and processes. The research onion (moving from the outer layers to the core) was developed by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2016) for business studies. It is widely used in social sciences to construct a theoretical framework for research. In various studies, the layers proposed in the research onion model have been modified and changed according to the field of study. The research onion consists of six main layers: research philosophy, approach to theory development, methodological choice, strategy, time horizons, and techniques and procedures including data collection and analysis (Melnikovas, 2018: 33; Sahay, 2016: 1).MethodologyAfter a search of article titles and keywords for the concept of urban landscape, more than 110 with more citations were selected. After a study of the article abstracts and other preliminary studies, 71 articles were selected, analyzed, and categorized using the qualitative method and content analysis. Finally, the research onion for each of the areas (the concept of urban landscape, visual evaluation of landscape, and visual management of landscape) was drawn and explained. Then Comprehensive research onion could use in landscape study and research compiled.Results and DiscussionThe research conducted in Iran in the field of visual management of landscape has generally been carried out at the macro scale (city), medium scale (watercourses and parks), and micro scale (streets). The survey research method and the descriptive-analytical approach have been adopted to investigate and analyze the current situation with the questionnaire tool. Many articles in the field of visual management have evaluated the visual aspects of landscape. Visual evaluation of the landscape is proposed as an independent concept in the field of landscape. In the field of evaluation, it is possible to become closer to people’s experience; therefore, quantitative methods, an experimental approach, a variety of techniques and analytical tools, such as visual protection levels, and Philip Thiel’s technique were used.The concept of urban landscape was addressed further with a view of the landscape as a whole. Aesthetic, critical, and semiotic theories were proposed as the theoretical support for the studies. The research process pursued in most of them is qualitative and analytical, and comparative, inductive, interpretive, and descriptive methods have been used therein. After choosing the desired method, the authors have used the Delphi technique, aerial photos, cluster analysis, systematic review, in-depth interview, review of narratives, photography, and collaborative mapping as data mining and data analysis tools. The model presented in this article involves an extra layer with respect to Saunders’s research onion model. The outer layer, which includes the ontology of the research, corresponds to the stage that specifies the researcher’s beliefs in the research process. The researcher must select their position from among the three categories of objectivist, structuralist, and subjectivist, as considered by Deming and Sowfield.A) The descriptive approach is added to the analogical inductive one proposed in Saunders’ research onion.B) In the strategy layer, experimental simulation and descriptive, correlational, hermeneutic, and analogical-adaptive analysis are added.C) In terms of time horizon, all studies are placed in one of the two categories of longitudinal and transverse research, and most of them are conducted with a longitudinal time horizon.D) Techniques and procedures are proposed in the central core of the urban landscape research onion. Research techniques are divided into two general categories with an emphasis on the opinions provided by experts: direct (by asking people) and indirect (through specialist analysis) (Karimi Moshaver, 2013; Tveit et al., 2006; Briggs & France, 1980).ConclusionThe urban landscape research onion model is composed of seven layers. It can be of different types according to the research problem, questions and objectives, choice of ontology, methodology, approach, strategy, and appropriate tool for analysis of the collected data. Given that most of the conducted studies applied various techniques, it is necessary to consider other layers of the research onion. This model attempted to provide a comprehensive overview of urban landscape research and introduce an integrated framework of the diverse, scattered types thereof. The model can help determine the paths of the research and avoid confusion and incorrect choices of analytical tools. The onion of urban landscape research can open the doors to researchers in the field. In future research, emphasis can be made on the specific concepts of landscape such as cultural landscape and vernacular landscape. On the other hand, similar research onion models in the field of urban landscape can be investigated with an emphasis on landscape scale (micro, medium, or macro).AcknowledgmentThis article is extracted from the first author's PhD thesis in titled "Explaining a semantic model of the urban landscape; a case study of the urban landscape of Shiraz". It is in progress at the Art University of Isfahan under the guidance of Dr. Mahmoud Ghalehnoee (the first guide) and Dr. Armin Behramian (The second guide).
Urban Design
Parissa Mahvari; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee; Safoora Mokhtarzadeh
Abstract
In most Iranian cities, people regard an urban space as a way to pass through, and these spaces encourage them to flee instead of inviting them to pause and socialize. However, urban spaces are basically where social interaction takes shape, and attempts to improve their quality is one of the most important ...
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In most Iranian cities, people regard an urban space as a way to pass through, and these spaces encourage them to flee instead of inviting them to pause and socialize. However, urban spaces are basically where social interaction takes shape, and attempts to improve their quality is one of the most important goals of urban design knowledge in the contemporary era. In the past, sidewalks and squares had a particular position in the central parts of cities. With the expansion of cities and the emergence of cars travelling around them, sidewalks and squares have suffered plenty of damage through the imposed vehicle access networks. Imam Ali Square in the city of Isfahan, Iran is a space that has lost its value and significance throughout history due to the changes in its spatial structure. These changes have resulted in the destruction or reconstruction of spaces that were once considered as parts of the area of the square. Proper access is one of the most important characteristics of a good public space, and it is a main purpose of the placemaking approach to enhance access to urban spaces to improve their quality. According to the principles of placemaking, it is a priority for an urban designer and planner to provide all social classes with access to urban centers and spaces in a variety of ways in order to increase their power of choice with respect to their needs and conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the quality of access as a well-known capability of the placemaking approach. It measured the quality of access at Imam Ali Square through assessment and analysis of six indicators: physical access (connectivity), continuity, accessibility (depth), inclusiveness, easy access to public transportation, and spatial resolution. These indicators were analyzed through field research and descriptive-analytical tools such as SPSS, GIS, and space syntax. According to the findings, easy access to public transportation (scoring 9.6), continuity (scoring 7.02), inclusiveness (scoring 5.4), physical access (scoring 2.42), and resolution (scoring 1.93) exhibited the highest to lowest scores. The final score for the quality of access was 5.41 out of 10, based on the calculation of mean indicator values, which indicated a moderate quality of access to the square as it is close to the median and range of scoring (8-10 for very good, 6-8 for good, 4-6 for moderate, 2-4 for poor, and 1-2 for very poor). Finally, it was inferred that the main problem with the square in terms of quality of access was the lack of concern for resolution, connectivity, and accessibility. It could thus be concluded that the resolution and depth of spaces created following the demolition of old urban structures has dropped due to the decrease in the significance of the surrounding old spaces although they have turned out to be more powerful interconnectors than their surrounding areas. Despite the recent attention paid to Imam Ali Square, the quality of access in the area is still not optimal, and greater concern for the examined indicators is expected in order to turn the square into an urban place.
Urban Ecology
Salahaldin Shoshtari; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee; Victoria Ezzatian; Aida Maleki; Mostafa Paknejad; raofeh rahpou
Abstract
The urban heat island phenomenon is one of the challenges with which most metropolises have been struggling due to unplanned city expansions. Multiple factors have led to the emergence and escalation of this phenomenon, which can be classified into three main categories: the macro-climate of the region, ...
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The urban heat island phenomenon is one of the challenges with which most metropolises have been struggling due to unplanned city expansions. Multiple factors have led to the emergence and escalation of this phenomenon, which can be classified into three main categories: the macro-climate of the region, materials used at urban fabric and urban texture. Various suggestions have been given by experts in this area to reduce the severity of this phenomenon and improve the urban microclimate. However, as the phenomenon is different in each city or metropolitan area, various location-specific solutions will be offered to reduce the factors contributing to the phenomenon. The study uses satellite data, including images of the Landsat satellite on July 18, 2015, as well as the overnight satellite images of Modis and the GIS, along with land data from the metropolitan weather stations closest to the selected simulation area where thermal islands were examined. In this regard, the extent of the impact of different uses on the formation and severity of thermal islands in Isfahan was investigated. Based on the findings, applicable suggestions in the field of urban activity are made with an emphasis on the green space. In this paper, on the city level, the main green spaces including green spaces of urban streets and different types of urban parks were examined with regard to their geographical location in terms of the three categories of surface temperature (approximate 24-35°C, 35-40°C, and 40-51°C) and the applied map of each of these categories were developed. Accordingly, at the city level, the temperature in 10% of urban green spaces was above the normal, the temperature in 15% of urban green spaces was in the normal range, and the temperature in 3% of these spaces was lower than the nornal range. The Abbas Abad area was studied in terms of urban usage through a simulation of the effect of green spaces, especially green spaces on the boundaries of the roads on the urban microclimate. This area is one of the areas with the most abundant, old green space in the city. In this regard, an urban green space with old trees was selected in the historical fabric of Isfahan and was modeled using Envi-Met. The simulation results for summer 2015 indicate that, despite the close proximity of the three selected points, about 1°C of difference is seen in the temperature of the three spots. The proximity of the water bodies, and green spaces in particular, is one of the main factors. Additionally, the ground data follows the pattern of simulations points as well. Therefore, different scenarios are proposed for the presence of green spaces and evaluated through simulation. The results of this paper show that small green spaces, if designed based on scientific principles, can have a good effect on the thermal effects of heat islands on the small scale. Also, because of the large scale of urban areas, the combined methods proposed in this study can lead to the application of measures to reduce the negative effects of heat islands for urban management.
Urban Sustainability
Golnaz Mortezaei; Mahmoud Mohammadi; Farshad Nasrollahi; Mahmoud Ghalehnoee
Abstract
Rapid progress in technology and, consequently, the increasing growth of urban population has inevitably led to the development of residential neighborhoods. Changes in the form of urban texture and their inconsistency with climatic features, together with the rise of energy demand, have had manifold ...
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Rapid progress in technology and, consequently, the increasing growth of urban population has inevitably led to the development of residential neighborhoods. Changes in the form of urban texture and their inconsistency with climatic features, together with the rise of energy demand, have had manifold adverse consequences such as global warming and climate change. According to previous research, most energy in cities is consumed by residential buildings which is highly affected by the city shape, an issue which needs to be amended. Therefore, since buildings account for a significant portion of energy consumption in cities, wise decisions should be made for designing new urban textures that reduce energy consumption. Research on urbanism and energy efficiency has offered different views. The vast majority of studies conducted on the optimization of energy consumption in urban areas have focused on the impact of urban shape on fuel consumption in transportation or have evaluated energy consumption in micro scales. But, as thermal performance changes in scales beyond the building scale, researchers must analyze the thermal performance of buildings in larger scales such as neighborhoods. The missing part in this field is the assessment of energy consumption in neighborhoods. To fill this gap, the present paper attempts to assess the primary energy consumption of cooling, heating and lighting systems in new patterns of residential texture on neighborhood scale. Afterwards, on the basis of primary energy criterion, efficient and inefficient patterns are identified and, finally, some strategies are provided for optimizing energy consumption in new residential areas. The present study is an applied research conducted using descriptive-analytical method. Data was collected by documentary and field methods. In the first step, the concepts of primary energy, energy efficiency, and typo-morphology approach are described and analyzed in order to formulate the theoretical framework of the research. The relationship between microclimate and morphology is also investigated. Then, following the typo-morphology approach, the residential texture of Sepahan Shahr, Esfahan, Iran, is categorized on the neighborhood scale. Finally, simulating the primary cooling, heating, and lighting equipments’ energy consumption in the residential textures via Design Builder software, results are analyzed based on the comparative approach and statistical tests. The results show that there is a strong correlation between primary energy consumption and indicators of design layout, mass placement, form of the building, height of the building, and open spaces. Also, there is a moderate correlation between primary energy consumption and block proportions. Moreover, based on the results from the variance analysis, common row patterns and square-shaped patterns are the most and least efficient patterns of new residential textures, respectively, though the lighting systems’ energy consumption is lower in square-shaped patterns. Other patterns, such as H, T, I, and L shapes are in mid-level for primary energy consumption. Among these patterns, the H-shape is the best choice for four-storey buildings with high-density.
Urban Design
Nima Ostovar; Mostafa behzadfar; bahador zamani; mahmood ghale noee
Volume 4, Issue 16 , November 2015, , Pages 39-54
Abstract
By design, some features of physical spaces can affect people’s image of time. Reviewing the literature shows a correlation between physical dimension of space and users’ time image; a number of place variables, affecting the duration estimation of time that also causes some environmental ...
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By design, some features of physical spaces can affect people’s image of time. Reviewing the literature shows a correlation between physical dimension of space and users’ time image; a number of place variables, affecting the duration estimation of time that also causes some environmental norms affecting the sense of place. Although, in urban design studies psychological and perceptional aspects of time image is neglected and there is no codified framework to study that, the present study aims to investigate the role of environmental elements in building and supporting the image of time. To achieve this aim, based on reviewing the related literature, a theoretical framework defined that includes some main variables: Time-quantitative variables, dynamic-time features, non-temporal variables, and normative variables. To approach a practical structure in study, "Naghsh-e-Jahan Square" as a case was studied using a mixed research method including storytelling for data collection and AHP for quantitative analysis. In one hand, a “semi-structure interview” technique employed that the analysis of interviews indicated a structure of temporal concepts in people's description of their daily life in "Naghsh-e-Jahan Square". On the other hand, quantifying norms and environmental elements (according to non-temporal variables) was conducted. AHP technique was used to compare the quantified environmental norms, with the impact level of environmental elements that concluded from Fuzzy questionnaires. The result indicates that square manifests different qualitative concepts in different times. Each one of these concepts are along with evidences as dynamic-time features and also quantitative & qualitative factors.
Urban Design
Mina Kashani Hamedani
Volume 4, Issue 14 , May 2015, , Pages 19-30
Abstract
Urban space is the context in which the activities and different perception of users take place; but various users such as different age groups have dissimilar perceptions of environment. It seems that the built environment and particularly urban space as the product of work of urban planners, urban ...
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Urban space is the context in which the activities and different perception of users take place; but various users such as different age groups have dissimilar perceptions of environment. It seems that the built environment and particularly urban space as the product of work of urban planners, urban designers and architects, does not necessarily consider the real variety of users and through this fact, aesthetic aspect of urban environment does not fulfill their needs fairly. Overlapping of the two domains of environmental psychology and urban aesthetics on the one hand and the diverse psychological characteristics in different age groups on the other hand confirm the necessity of this research. The need for studying urban aesthetics is re-affirmed also from a statistical point of view. In 2010 demographics, out of seven billion of the world’s population, approximately 1.2 billion were children between the ages of 5 and 14. This figure is approximately 17.4 percent of the total world population or one-fifth. The same statistics is shown in Iran where there were roughly 11 million children (5-14 age range) from the total population of 74 million in 2010 which is approximately 15 percent and or one-sixth of the total population. These official statistics are demonstrate the importance children in different fields generally and especially in urban design and urban aesthetic. Studying urban aesthetics from the viewpoint of particular users of urban space like children with different psychological characteristics leads to an introduction to urban aesthetics which is trying to find the answer to the research question. The objective is to identify the aesthetic preferences of children in their surrounding environment, especially in urban spaces. However, there were some limits in this study; the most important limiting factor was the lack of detailed information regarding the social and cultural environment of the statistical sample which could explain differences in children’s points of views. Thus, examining urban spaces from an aesthetic perspective is important because their users have different aesthetic perceptions and urban spaces are not necessarily responsive for all kinds of users. This research answers the following questions: which environmental aesthetic preferences can be recognized in different groups of children and adults, and what are the priorities of related variables in different groups. There are two major approaches to the study of aesthetics, empirical and philosophical. This research is based on the empirical approach according to the importance of visual aspects in urban design. This research has studied the signification of three groups conforming to Santayana’s classification of environmental aesthetics which consists of three categories of emotional, formal and symbolic. The research is applied and descriptive-analytic. Data was collected from library study based on documentary research as well as field observations and children’s drawings. Based on Cochran's C test, 750 effective questionnaires were dispensed in Isfahan city which is the figure for the statistical population. The results were analyzed by Likert-Scale and SPSS software. The findings indicate certain differences exist between the various age groups in their preferences of aesthetic priority and in the importance of formal variables from the viewpoint of children. Of the three mentioned categories of environmental aesthetics, the formal category was most frequently preferred by children.
