Urban Design
parima Yami Marandi; Hassan sajadzadeh
Abstract
Highlights
This study investigates street cafés along the Enqelab Square–University of Tehran axis as urban “third places.”
Street cafés perform functions beyond commerce by fostering social interaction, psychological security, and collective identity.
Café ...
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Highlights
This study investigates street cafés along the Enqelab Square–University of Tehran axis as urban “third places.”
Street cafés perform functions beyond commerce by fostering social interaction, psychological security, and collective identity.
Café management, spatial quality, and social vitality exert the strongest influence on users’ experience.
Temporal flexibility, integration with the street, and environmental conditions emerge as the main weaknesses.
Management, spatial quality, and social interaction explain more than 70% of the perception of third place.
Major improvements include human-centered design, enhanced management, adjusted operating hours, and stronger integration with the sidewalk.
Extended Abstract
Street cafés along the Enqelab Square–University of Tehran corridor function as significant third places that enhance social interaction, sense of belonging, and urban experience. The findings indicate that café management, spatial quality, sensory experience, and social vitality have the strongest positive effects on users, whereas environmental sustainability and café–street integration remain comparatively weaker dimensions. Overall, these cafés make an important contribution to the creation of vibrant urban spaces; however, improvements in sustainability and connectivity with public space are still required.
Introduction
Urban public spaces play a vital role in supporting social interaction, shaping identity, and sustaining everyday urban life. The concept of the “third place” refers to spaces beyond home and work that facilitate informal social interaction, with cafés representing one of the most prominent examples of such environments. These spaces strengthen social capital and reinforce place attachment. Street cafés along the Enqelab–University of Tehran corridor operate as human-centered settings that promote interaction, memory, and urban vitality. Accordingly, this study examines their role in the formation of third places and explores how design, management, and micro-scale planning can enhance their social performance and improve users’ experience.
Theoretical Framework
General characteristics of the third place and the position of street cafés
The concept of the “third place,” introduced by Oldenburg, refers to informal and accessible spaces beyond home and work that support social interaction, a sense of belonging, and community cohesion. Such places help reduce loneliness and strengthen social life. In the Iranian context, they also provide opportunities for dialogue and informal engagement within urban environments. Street cafés constitute a key example of third places, where design qualities and semi-public settings encourage interaction and, in turn, improve livability, social satisfaction, and neighborhood vitality.
Street cafés as third places and spatial experience
Street cafés function as third places by offering informal and accessible environments for social interaction and the exchange of ideas. They bring together diverse social groups, thereby reinforcing social cohesion and trust, and often serve as a “second home” for regular users. Design features such as human scale, comfort, natural light, and soft boundaries encourage longer stays and richer patterns of interaction. Along the Enqelab–University of Tehran corridor, these cafés contribute to socialization and urban vitality and are assessed in this study through 13 third-place indicators.
Theoretical linkage of the third place with the views of Jacobs, Lefebvre, and Relph
The concept of the third place is theoretically grounded in the ideas of Jacobs, Lefebvre, and Relph, all of whom emphasize lively public spaces, everyday interaction, and place attachment. Third places foster social capital, identity formation, and civic participation through social, cultural, and physical dimensions. This study extends the concept by incorporating management and environmental sustainability, demonstrating that the physical, spatial, and managerial characteristics of street cafés shape users’ experiences and enhance vitality, psychological security, and sense of place along the Enqelab–University of Tehran corridor.
Figure 1. Conceptual model of the relationships among the research variables
Methodology
This applied descriptive–analytical study investigates how street cafés along the Enqelab Square–University of Tehran corridor contribute to the formation of third places. Drawing on data collected from 380 café users, together with expert opinions, the research evaluates 13 third-place indicators through questionnaires and field observations. The findings show that, owing to their accessibility, informal atmosphere, and street-edge location, these cafés function as hubs of social interaction and urban vitality. The principal contribution of this study lies in its comprehensive analysis of the social, cultural, physical, managerial, and environmental factors that shape user experience and place attachment within one of Tehran’s most important cultural corridors.
Case Study Introduction
The Enqelab Square–University of Tehran corridor is one of Tehran’s most vibrant cultural and social spaces, distinguished by its large student population, cultural activities, bookstores, and numerous street cafés. Field surveys identified 42 active street cafés that serve as accessible and informal gathering places for students, artists, employees, and visitors. The corridor’s strong cultural identity, social diversity, pedestrian-friendly environment, and concentration of cafés make it an ideal case for examining the concept of the third place. These cafés contribute to urban vitality by promoting social interaction, cultural identity, sense of belonging, spatial quality, and psychological security.
Figure 1. a) Location of the study area, b) Spatial distribution of cafés within the study area, and c) Photographs of the cafés
Results and Discussion
Street cafés along the Enqelab–University of Tehran corridor function effectively as third places. The study demonstrates high reliability ( ) and reveals that café management, spatial quality, social vitality, and sense of belonging are the factors that most strongly shape user experience. Among these, management, spatial quality, and social interaction emerge as the principal predictors, explaining approximately 71% of the variation in users’ perceptions. The weaker dimensions include temporal continuity, social equality, and integration with the street. Overall, the findings support Oldenburg’s theory and indicate that cafés enhance social interaction, place attachment, and urban vitality, although improvements in design, management, and pedestrian planning remain necessary.
Conclusion
Street cafés along the Enqelab–University of Tehran corridor function as important third places that extend beyond commercial use and contribute to social interaction, psychological security, place attachment, and urban vitality. Analysis of 380 questionnaires shows that café management, spatial quality, social vitality, and sensory experience are the strongest factors shaping users’ perceptions, while temporal adaptability, street integration, and environmental quality remain weaker dimensions. Correlation and regression analyses confirm that management, spatial quality, and social interaction are the main predictors of third-place formation, explaining more than 70% of its variance. Overall, these cafés successfully support third-place functions; however, improvements in operating hours, sidewalk integration, and environmental management are still needed. Key recommendations include strengthening human-centered design, improving management quality, adjusting opening hours, and enhancing the physical connection between cafés and the street in order to reinforce their role as urban social nodes.
Acknowledgment
The authors sincerely express their appreciation to all individuals who contributed to this research through their collaboration, guidance, or support.
This study received no specific financial or institutional funding.
Urban Planning
Aliakbar Salaripour; Sara Nikmard Namin; Mohammad Nouripour sedehi; Zahra Ahmadi
Abstract
Highlights
Events as an operational mechanism: Public events function as core methodological instruments in strategic-operational planning, rather than mere symbolic gestures.
A practical step-by-step model: The study introduces a scalable, procedural model for integrating public events throughout ...
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Highlights
Events as an operational mechanism: Public events function as core methodological instruments in strategic-operational planning, rather than mere symbolic gestures.
A practical step-by-step model: The study introduces a scalable, procedural model for integrating public events throughout the urban visioning process.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
In recent decades, Iran’s urban planning system has faced persistent criticism regarding the inefficacy of conventional master and detailed plans. These top-down frameworks have largely failed to address the dynamic needs of contemporary cities or meet the expectations of citizens, practitioners, and policymakers. Consequently, strategic planning—centered on formulating a shared, long-term vision—has emerged as a compelling alternative. While numerous studies have addressed participatory planning theoretically, few have examined the empirical, step-by-step implementation of participatory visioning in a real-world context. This paper addresses this gap by analyzing ‘Rasht’s Civic Event 1422’, a public initiative designed to formulate a shared vision for the city of Rasht within its strategic-operational planning framework. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the stages of ‘event-readiness’ in achieving a shared vision, thereby offering a replicable practical model for other Iranian municipalities.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundation of this research rests on three interconnected pillars: participatory strategic planning, collaborative visioning, and event-based public engagement.
Participatory strategic planning asserts that effective urban strategy must originate from an inclusive visioning process involving municipal management, the private sector, civil society, and the general public. Participation legitimizes decision-making, broadens perspectives, and enhances social capacity. However, the literature warns that participation remains tokenistic unless it actively empowers citizens and fosters robust stakeholder networks.
Collaborative visioning is defined as a collective process through which community members identify their current identity, core values, and future aspirations. Successful visioning requires two essential elements: a comprehensive baseline assessment of present conditions and genuine public engagement. Without these, visions remain bureaucratic exercises rather than living social contracts.
Events and festivals (including public gatherings and carnivals) are proposed here as strategic catalysts for engagement. Events create unique socio-linguistic spaces where citizens, institutions, and urban environments converge. They facilitate dialogue, foster a sense of belonging, and amplify diverse voices, including those of marginalized groups. Based on this synthesis, the study developed a conceptual framework (Figure 1) positing that effective visioning occurs when citizens, urban institutions, and physical space interact through event-driven dialogue. This interaction generates a shared language and a mutual understanding of collective values.
(Figure 1. Conceptual Framework)
Methodology
This research employs a policy analysis methodology within an extended framework that incorporates qualitative textual analysis. The study followed a four-step process:
Step 1: Literature Review: Examining the theoretical foundations of participation, visioning, and event-based planning.
Step 2: Textual Analysis: Refining the conceptual framework and conducting qualitative content analysis of national, regional, and local strategic documents, alongside international case studies.
Step 3: Pre-event Process Analysis: Collecting multi-dimensional data through:
900 structured questionnaires across Rasht’s five districts (Cochran’s formula, 0.08 margin of error).
30 in-depth interviews with citizens.
50 semi-structured interviews with experts, elites, and city council members (snowball sampling).
Consultations with 102 thematic working group participants and 25 district-level stakeholders.
Step 4: Event Analysis: The primary public event, ‘Rasht’s Civic Event 1422’, was held on July 16, 2023, in the pedestrian zone of Rasht’s Municipality Square. The event engaged approximately 500 adults and 100 children through: (a) interactive mapping of local challenges and assets; (b) a children’s drawing workshop titled ‘My Lovable City’; and © a ‘fingerprint voting’ system for prioritizing vision themes.
Results and Discussion
The findings demonstrate that event-based visioning is both feasible and effective, provided that participation is embedded throughout the entire planning cycle rather than treated as a final validation step. Key results include:
Divergent Priorities: A significant gap was observed between elite and citizen priorities. While experts emphasized smart governance and integrated management, citizens prioritized tangible, everyday concerns: river restoration, efficient public transport, waste management, and family-friendly public spaces. This divergence underscores the necessity of early-stage citizen involvement.
Synthesized Vision: The final vision statement (Horizon 1422/2043) successfully synthesized 29 strategic axes prioritized by the public.
Creation of ‘Language Spaces’: The event transformed the pedestrian square—a site of collective identity—into a platform for face-to-face interaction between planners and the public. Children’s drawings added a crucial intergenerational dimension, revealing desires for safety and nature often overlooked in formal technocratic documents.
Structural Barriers: Despite the event’s success, deep-seated challenges remain, including bureaucratic centralization, lack of managerial stability, and historical mistrust. Some citizens’ reluctance to participate in ‘fingerprint voting’ highlighted a lingering skepticism regarding whether their input would manifest as tangible change.
Conclusion
This research provides an empirically grounded model for utilizing public events as legitimate policy instruments that bridge the gap between technocratic planning and lived experience. The study concludes that:
Genuine participation requires citizen involvement from the earliest stages of problem identification, not just during final prioritization.
Sustainability of Participation: The effectiveness of public events is contingent upon their continuity. Consistent follow-up and oversight mechanisms are essential to enhance participatory capacity and strengthen citizens’ agency. Without such continuity, participation risks being reduced to a superficial, one-off exercise.
Institutionalization: ‘Event-readiness’ must be institutionalized within municipal frameworks through dedicated budgets, transparent feedback loops, and continuous reporting to the public.
Structural Reform: Without addressing the underlying pathologies of urban governance—such as bureaucratic resistance and systemic distrust—even the most well-designed events may remain symbolic gestures rather than drivers of participatory democracy.
Urban Design
Farshad Nourian; Sajedeh Nazarimajd
Abstract
Highlights
Instagram narratives reshape the production and reproduction of collective urban memories.
The study integrates collective memory theory with social media–based urban research.
A systematic literature review based on the PRISMA and TCCM frameworks was conducted.
The proposed Urban ...
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Highlights
Instagram narratives reshape the production and reproduction of collective urban memories.
The study integrates collective memory theory with social media–based urban research.
A systematic literature review based on the PRISMA and TCCM frameworks was conducted.
The proposed Urban Memory Cycle model explains the temporal process of memory representation.
The framework contributes to urban planning, urban design, and heritage management studies.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Urban spaces are dynamic arenas in which collective memories are continuously formed and reproduced through interactions among physical environments, social activities, and everyday narratives. In recent years, social media platforms, particularly Instagram, have significantly transformed the ways urban experiences are documented, circulated, and remembered. Through geotagging, visual storytelling, and user-generated narratives, Instagram has become an influential medium for shaping citizens' perceptions of urban places and collective urban identities.
Despite the growing body of literature on collective memory and social media data in urban studies, there is still no integrated conceptual framework capable of explaining the temporal process through which collective memories are represented through Instagram narratives. Most previous studies have either focused on the physical and historical dimensions of memory or emphasized quantitative analyses of social media data, while the relationship among temporal interaction, spatial experience, and digital representation has remained underexplored. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the following research question:
What conceptual framework can explain the representation of collective memories in urban spaces based on Instagram narratives?
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundation of this study lies at the intersection of collective memory studies, urban spatial theories, and social media research. Maurice Halbwachs defined collective memory as a socially constructed process shaped within spatial and cultural contexts. Urban spaces, particularly historic public spaces, preserve and reproduce collective memories through landmarks, monuments, and shared experiences. Scholars such as Aldo Rossi emphasized the role of urban artifacts in maintaining the identity and spirit of cities.
At the same time, digital platforms have transformed the mechanisms of memory production and representation. Instagram creates a visual archive of urban experiences through geotagged photographs, hashtags, captions, and user interactions. However, many previous studies have primarily focused on quantitative analyses, such as spatial clustering and network structures, while the qualitative and temporal dimensions of memory representation have received comparatively less attention.
To address this gap, the study adopts temporal interaction theory, which explains the relationship between users and places through three stages: pre-experience, experience, and reflection. Based on this perspective, the article develops the conceptual model of the Urban Memory Cycle, which connects these temporal stages with three dimensions: the physical environment, activity, and meaning.
Methodology
This study employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach to identify and synthesize the conceptual foundations related to collective memory, Instagram narratives, and urban representation. The review process was conducted using the PRISMA framework to ensure transparency and methodological rigor.
Relevant studies were collected from Scopus, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate using Persian and English keywords, including collective memory, social media, Instagram, urban space, and city. English-language studies published between 2015 and 2024 were included, whereas Persian-language studies were considered without temporal limitation because of the limited number of relevant sources. Non-scientific materials and studies unrelated to urban environments were excluded.
Initially, 121 records were identified. After removing duplicate and irrelevant sources through title, abstract, and full-text screening, 28 studies were selected for the final analysis. The selected studies were then analyzed through qualitative coding and organized using the TCCM framework, including Theory, Context, Characteristics, and Methods. This approach enabled the identification of dominant theoretical trends and methodological gaps necessary for constructing the final conceptual model.
Results and Discussion
The findings reveal that previous studies have extensively examined physical dimensions, such as landmarks, monuments, historic spaces, and urban symbols, as well as social activities and visual narratives associated with collective memory. However, the integration of temporal processes and mixed qualitative–quantitative approaches remain limited.
The TCCM analysis demonstrated that collective memory studies mainly emphasize historic urban spaces and place identity, whereas Instagram-based urban studies often focus on geotagged data, spatial clustering, and user interaction patterns. Only a limited number of studies have examined how digital narratives influence the formation and reproduction of collective memories over time.
In response to these gaps, this article proposes the Urban Memory Cycle model. The model integrates three dimensions—the physical environment, activity, and meaning—with three temporal stages: pre-experience, experience, and reflection. During the pre-experience stage, users form expectations about places through Instagram narratives and images. During the experience stage, individuals physically interact with urban spaces while simultaneously documenting their experiences through photographs and captions. During the reflection stage, users revisit and reproduce memories by sharing and reinterpreting digital narratives.
The model explains how Instagram functions as a digital archive of collective memory and how urban experiences evolve from data to narrative and from narrative to memory.
Conclusion
This study proposes a conceptual framework for understanding the representation of collective memories in urban spaces through Instagram narratives. By integrating collective memory theory, place attachment studies, and social media–based urban research, the article introduces the Urban Memory Cycle model, which explains the temporal relationship among physical space, social activity, and meaning-making processes.
The findings indicate that, while previous studies have addressed the physical and narrative aspects of urban memory, limited attention has been paid to the temporal and process-oriented dimensions of memory reproduction in digital environments. The proposed framework contributes theoretically by bridging collective memory studies with data-driven urban research and contributes practically by providing a conceptual basis for urban planning, public space design, and heritage management.
Future studies may empirically test the proposed model through case studies and comparative analyses across multiple social media platforms.
Acknowledgment
This article is derived from the Master’s thesis of the second author conducted at the School of Urban Planning, University of Tehran, under the supervision of the first author.
Urban Planning
Hamideh Boghrati; Toktam Hanai
Abstract
Highlights
This study integrates a meta-method approach with a systematic review of 28 Web of Science articles (2010–2024) to develop a comprehensive framework for assessing tourism impacts on historical urban areas.
The proposed framework supports urban planners and heritage managers by identifying ...
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Highlights
This study integrates a meta-method approach with a systematic review of 28 Web of Science articles (2010–2024) to develop a comprehensive framework for assessing tourism impacts on historical urban areas.
The proposed framework supports urban planners and heritage managers by identifying methodological gaps and promoting integrated mixed-method approaches.
The study highlights the limited attention paid to socio-cultural dimensions despite their importance for sustainable tourism management.
The framework contributes to evidence-based decision-making for balancing tourism development with heritage conservation.
Introduction
The rapid growth of tourism has generated considerable economic and cultural benefits while simultaneously imposing increasing environmental pressures on historical urban areas and local ecosystems (UNWTO, 2020). High tourist concentrations contribute to pollution, traffic congestion, excessive waste generation, and the degradation of cultural landscapes, threatening both environmental quality and social sustainability (Ricaurte et al., 2023). These challenges are particularly evident in historical urban fabrics and World Heritage Sites, where sensitive physical structures and cultural values require careful protection (García-Hernández et al., 2017; Yawer et al., 2022).
In developing countries such as Iran, limited environmental planning and fragmented policymaking have reduced the effectiveness of tourism impact assessment (Sharpley & Telfer, 2014). Despite possessing exceptional cultural and historical assets (UNESCO, 2021), many Iranian historic cities have experienced increasing environmental degradation, pressure on natural resources, and deterioration of heritage sites as tourism has expanded (Holden, 2016). Mashhad, Iran's largest religious tourism destination, exemplifies these challenges, receiving millions of visitors annually while facing growing environmental and infrastructural pressures (Statistical Center of Iran, 2022).
Although previous studies have examined tourism impacts using either quantitative or qualitative approaches, few have integrated both perspectives within a comprehensive methodological framework. Assessing environmental impacts in historical urban areas requires the simultaneous analysis of measurable indicators, such as pollution and traffic, alongside qualitative dimensions, including stakeholder perceptions and socio-cultural change. Therefore, this study adopts a meta-method approach to review existing methodological practices and answer the following research question:
How can a meta-method approach provide a more comprehensive framework for assessing the environmental impacts of tourism on historical urban fabrics than conventional research methods?
Theoretical Framework
This study is grounded in sustainable development theory (Brundtland, 1987) and the concept of sustainable tourism, which seeks to balance economic development, environmental protection, and socio-cultural well-being. In historical urban environments, uncontrolled tourism growth has intensified environmental degradation while placing increasing pressure on cultural heritage and local communities (Gössling & Hall, 2005; Holden, 2016).
The research adopts a meta-method approach (Sterman, 2000; Watkins et al., 2010), which integrates qualitative and quantitative evidence to capture the multidimensional nature of tourism impacts. Unlike mono-method studies, this approach combines environmental indicators—such as pollution, traffic, and resource consumption—with qualitative evidence derived from stakeholder experiences and cultural perspectives.
The methodological framework is further organized using the Saunders Research Onion (Saunders et al., 2016), which structures the research process across philosophical assumptions, methodological choices, research strategies, data collection, and analytical techniques, thereby ensuring methodological transparency and reproducibility.
Methodology
This applied research employs a meta-method approach based on a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) of peer-reviewed articles indexed in the Web of Science database between 2010 and 2024. Following predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 28 articles were selected for detailed analysis.
A structured coding framework was developed in MAXQDA to extract information on research philosophy, methodological approach, research strategy, data collection techniques, analytical methods, and software applications, including NVivo, ATLAS.ti, SPSS, GIS, and Excel.
The Saunders Research Onion served as the organizing framework for integrating methodological layers, while triangulation was employed to validate coding consistency and compare findings across multiple studies. This process enabled the identification of dominant methodological trends, existing research gaps, and opportunities for developing a comprehensive framework for tourism impact assessment in historical urban contexts.
Results and Discussion
The review identified several methodological and thematic trends across the 28 selected studies. From a thematic perspective, natural resource consumption (56%), transportation systems (68%), and economic development (60%) received the greatest research attention. In contrast, socio-cultural dimensions—particularly quality of life, community well-being, and cultural identity—remain comparatively underexplored despite their importance for sustainable tourism management.
Methodologically, mixed-method approaches were the most frequently adopted (14 studies, 50%), followed by qualitative (9 studies, 32%) and quantitative approaches (5 studies, 18%). Interpretivism emerged as the dominant research philosophy, reflecting the importance of stakeholder perspectives and contextual understanding. Similarly, the inductive approach and case study strategy each accounted for 20 studies (71%), with Safranbolu, Bordeaux, Porto, and Pingyao representing the most frequently investigated cases.
Document analysis was the primary data collection method (17 studies), followed by interviews (10 studies) and observation (9 studies), whereas questionnaires were comparatively less common (4 studies). Among analytical tools, NVivo was the most frequently applied qualitative software, while descriptive statistics remained the dominant quantitative technique, with relatively limited use of advanced methods such as regression analysis and spatial modeling.
The review also identified persistent methodological challenges, including limited stakeholder representation, interviewer and respondent bias, restricted generalizability of case-study findings, incomplete sampling frameworks, and the substantial resources required for mixed-method research.
Overall, the findings demonstrate that comprehensive tourism impact assessment requires integrating quantitative indicators—including pollution, traffic, and resource consumption—with qualitative evidence related to stakeholder perceptions, cultural values, and community experiences. Such integration provides a more comprehensive understanding of environmental and socio-cultural changes than either approach can achieve independently.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that a meta-method approach, supported by a systematic literature review and qualitative–quantitative synthesis, provides a comprehensive framework for assessing the environmental, social, and economic impacts of tourism on historical urban fabrics.
The analysis of 28 Web of Science articles (2010–2024) indicates that environmental issues, transportation systems, and economic development dominate current research, whereas socio-cultural dimensions remain insufficiently addressed despite their significant role in sustainable tourism. Methodologically, mixed-method approaches outperform mono-method designs by integrating measurable environmental indicators with stakeholder experiences and contextual knowledge.
The proposed framework offers a practical decision-support tool for urban planners, heritage managers, and policymakers by facilitating evidence-based tourism management while balancing heritage conservation and local development. Its application is particularly relevant to rapidly growing tourism destinations in Iran, such as Mashhad, where increasing visitor numbers place considerable pressure on historical environments and urban infrastructure.
Furthermore, the framework is transferable to other historic cities in Iran—including Isfahan, Shiraz, Yazd, Tabriz, and Kashan—as well as comparable international contexts. Future studies are encouraged to expand the empirical application of this framework through larger datasets, advanced analytical techniques such as spatial regression and system dynamics, and more systematic investigation of socio-cultural dimensions, including resident perceptions, cultural identity, and social equity.
Urban Planning
Mohanna Sarvari; Nina Khalighi; Mehdi Saidi
Abstract
Highlights
This research introduces the innovative Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI), which uniquely evaluates both physical infrastructure and women’s perceived experiences to understand their presence in urban parks.
The findings reveal that improving park infrastructure alone is insufficient ...
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Highlights
This research introduces the innovative Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI), which uniquely evaluates both physical infrastructure and women’s perceived experiences to understand their presence in urban parks.
The findings reveal that improving park infrastructure alone is insufficient to achieve gender equity, as social, cultural, and economic factors play decisive roles.
A significant gap exists between the provision of physical lighting and women’s perceived sense of safety, primarily due to the lack of effective social surveillance mechanisms.
The study highlights the need for a multidimensional approach that integrates physical design with social, cultural, and economic planning to create inclusive and welcoming urban public spaces for women.
Introduction
International frameworks and theories, including Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space and the concept of the embodiment of space, emphasize that space is socially produced through human interactions. When urban planning fails to address women’s needs, their lived experience of space becomes constrained by insecurity, limited accessibility, and reduced opportunities for participation. In Iranian cities, the dominance of conventional planning approaches has resulted in public spaces that inadequately respond to women’s requirements for safety, accessibility, and comfort.
Previous studies have identified security, activity diversity, and individual characteristics—such as age and marital status—as key determinants of women’s presence in public spaces. Weak security, cultural constraints, and the lack of gender-responsive public services have further reduced women’s participation in urban spaces and intensified spatial inequality. Focusing on Shohada Park in Sanandaj, this study demonstrates that inadequate lighting, insufficient urban furniture, and limited public services have contributed to women’s lower presence despite their substantial share of the city’s population.
Theoretical Framework
This study develops a theoretical framework to examine the factors shaping women’s preferences in urban parks and to evaluate park planning quality from a gender-responsive perspective. The framework draws upon studies of urban parks, women-centered planning, public participation, and women’s use of public spaces.
It assumes that women’s experiences of urban parks are multidimensional and influenced by the interaction of physical, social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors. Accordingly, park quality is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct that reflects both objective physical conditions and women’s subjective experiences. The framework is operationalized through measurable indicators to support practical and gender-responsive urban park planning.
A theoretical framework for analyzing women’s preferences and evaluating park planning quality.
Grounded in the literature on urban parks, women-centered planning, public participation, and women’s use of public spaces.
Women’s experiences are shaped by physical, social, cultural, economic, and environmental dimensions.
Park quality incorporates both objective characteristics and subjective perceptions.
The framework is translated into measurable indicators for practical planning applications.
Methodology
This applied study adopts a mixed-methods (qualitative–quantitative) approach to develop and evaluate the Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI) across five dimensions. Qualitative data were first used to identify the relevant indicators, which were subsequently tested and quantified through quantitative analysis.
Applied research using a mixed-methods approach.
Development and measurement of the Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI) across five dimensions: physical, social, economic, cultural, and environmental.
Study population: women aged over 20 years in Sanandaj (population: 148,920; 2016 Census).
Shohada Park was selected as the case study because of its importance as a major urban public space.
Results and Discussion
The findings indicate that women’s presence in Shohada Park is influenced by the combined effects of physical, social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors rather than by physical conditions alone.
The principal innovation of this study is the development of the Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI), which simultaneously evaluates objective park infrastructure and women’s subjective experiences. The results demonstrate that physical improvements alone cannot achieve gender equity in urban public spaces. Instead, social cohesion, cultural acceptance, economic opportunities, and environmental quality are equally important in shaping women’s experiences and encouraging their presence.
Conclusion
The findings demonstrate that increasing women’s presence in urban parks requires more than physical improvements. A multidimensional approach that simultaneously addresses social, cultural, economic, and environmental factors is essential for creating equitable and inclusive public spaces.
The study introduces the Gender Equity Experience Index (GEPI) as a practical, policy-oriented tool for evaluating public spaces from a gender equity perspective through the integration of qualitative and quantitative evidence.
The results also highlight several planning priorities, including improving restroom facilities, providing multipurpose public spaces, expanding cultural programs, strengthening affordable commercial services, enhancing children’s play facilities and urban furniture, and increasing both actual and perceived safety through improved lighting and social surveillance.
By incorporating economic and cultural dimensions within a mixed-methods framework, the study provides a more comprehensive understanding of women’s experiences in urban public spaces. Nevertheless, the research is limited by its focus on a single park and its cross-sectional design. Future studies should employ comparative and longitudinal approaches to validate and expand the proposed framework across different urban contexts.
Ultimately, achieving safe, inclusive, and gender-responsive urban spaces requires a fundamental reconsideration of conventional urban planning approaches.
Acknowledgment
This article is derived from a Master’s thesis in Urban Planning titled 'Planning Urban Parks Based on the Needs and Preferences of Women: A Case Study of Shohada Park, Sanandaj,' presented at the University of Kurdistan by the first author, supervised by the second author and consulted by the third author.
environmental psychology
Roya Hatami varzaneh; Mahmoud Shokuhi Dolatabadi; Fatemeh Bahrami Gahruei
Abstract
Highlights
The psychological quality of urban spaces and the mental health of urban residents are influenced by urban design grounded in multisensory perception.
Stress reduction and psychological restoration in urban environments result from the interaction and synergy of acoustic and visual stimuli.
The ...
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Highlights
The psychological quality of urban spaces and the mental health of urban residents are influenced by urban design grounded in multisensory perception.
Stress reduction and psychological restoration in urban environments result from the interaction and synergy of acoustic and visual stimuli.
The effect of acoustic environments on reducing urban stress is 1.4 times greater than that of visual environments.
Urban environments combining natural landscapes with nature sounds provide the highest restorative potential.
Introduction
Urban stress, one of the most prevalent mental health-related conditions, reflects the relationship between the urban environment and human psychological well-being. In this context, improving the quality of urban spaces through therapeutic urban design contributes to enhancing residents’ mental health. Perceived stress in urban environments is influenced by both acoustic and visual settings, as well as by environmental stressors such as natural features, traffic, enclosure, crowding, and natural or human-made sounds.
Although previous studies have highlighted the importance of acoustic and visual environments in promoting mental health, their independent and interactive effects on perceived urban stress remain insufficiently understood. Consequently, research tailored to the specific environmental and cultural context of Isfahan is necessary to advance knowledge in urban psychology. Accordingly, this study addresses the following research question:
How do acoustic and visual environments affect residents’ perceived stress levels in the urban spaces of Isfahan?
Theoretical Framework
According to Environmental Stress Theory, psychological stress results from the dynamic interaction between individuals and their surrounding urban environment. Through cognitive appraisal, individuals interpret environmental conditions as pleasant or unpleasant, compatible or incompatible with their preferences, needs, and coping abilities (Vaessen et al., 2016). Consequently, environmental perception and stress experience are shaped by both exposure to environmental stimuli and the psychological responses that follow such exposure (Crosswell & Lockwood, 2020).
Based on the physiological functions of human senses, approximately 80% of environmental information is perceived through vision, reflecting the dominance of spatial perception, while the remaining 20% is received through hearing, emphasizing temporal perception. Therefore, stress experienced in urban environments is influenced by the interaction between acoustic and visual stimuli.
Furthermore, citizens’ perceptions of stress and their responses to acoustic and visual environments may vary according to their lived experiences, lifestyles, and social, economic, environmental, and ecological contexts. Finally, perceived psychological stress can be assessed either through individuals’ subjective evaluations of negative emotions—such as pressure, fear, or discomfort—or through the physiological and psychological symptoms reported following exposure to stressors (Tryon et al., 2015).
Methodology
This study employed a laboratory-based experimental design to evaluate the therapeutic effects of acoustic and visual environments on residents’ perceived stress in urban spaces in Isfahan. A two-way factorial design (four acoustic environments × five visual environments) was adopted, with participants randomly assigned to one of 20 virtual reality environments.
Twenty videos were developed to simulate realistic urban experiences by combining images of selected urban locations in Isfahan—including Shahid Rajaei Park, Sepah Street, Imam Ali Underpass, and Shahid Keshvari Neighborhood—with three categories of sounds: nature sounds, crowd murmurs, and traffic noise. Nature sounds represented restorative experiences in green spaces, crowd sounds reflected everyday human activity, and traffic noise represented common urban stressors.
A total of 100 students from the Art University of Isfahan completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) to induce a moderate level of stress before exposure to the experimental environments. Participants reported their perceived stress levels before and after exposure using the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI).
The independent effects of acoustic and visual environments, together with their interaction effects, were examined. In addition, the mean stress reduction associated with each of the 20 acoustic–visual combinations was calculated to rank the environments from the most to the least restorative, thereby identifying desirable and undesirable combinations for restorative urban design.
Results and Discussion
The findings reveal several major patterns regarding the effects of acoustic and visual environments on perceived urban stress in Isfahan.
The combination of natural landscapes and nature sounds, such as Shahid Rajaei Park accompanied by birdsong and flowing water, produced the greatest restorative effect.
Urban environments characterized by built landscapes, such as Sepah Street, the Imam Ali Underpass, and the Keshvari Neighborhood, and by artificial sounds, including traffic noise and crowd murmurs, demonstrated considerably lower restorative potential and, in some cases, increased perceived stress.
The adverse effects of traffic noise were not fully mitigated by the presence of natural visual environments.
The synergy between natural auditory and visual stimuli enhanced parasympathetic nervous system activity and reduced both physiological and psychological stress responses.
Urban spaces characterized by heavy traffic and crowd density generated the highest levels of perceived stress because they reduced the sense of control, disrupted environmental processing, and increased sympathetic nervous system activation.
Although enclosure had a smaller influence on stress than traffic and crowding, it increased psychological pressure in critical situations by restricting visual openness and creating a sense of confinement.
Conclusion
The findings indicate that the effect of acoustic environments on reducing urban stress is 1.4 times greater than that of visual environments. Moreover, environments with natural characteristics, whether auditory or visual, provide greater restorative benefits than environments dominated by artificial features. Among all environmental combinations, natural landscapes accompanied by nature sounds produced the greatest reduction in perceived stress.
These findings demonstrate that acoustic and visual environments influence perceived stress both independently and interactively. Their interaction plays a critical role in improving the psychological quality of urban spaces and shaping users’ restorative experiences. Consequently, paying attention to multisensory harmony in urban design can contribute significantly to promoting mental health and creating healthier, more restorative urban environments.
